Capita selecta
Chapter 7.Augustine and the Vandals
"The just perisheth, and no man layeth it to heart; and men of mercy are taken away, for there is none to understand; for the just man is taken away from before the face of evil."
I BEGAN by directing the reader's attention to the
labours of two great bishops, who restored the faith of Christianity where it
had long been obscured. Now, I will put before him, by way of contrast, a scene
of the overthrow of religion,—the extinction of a candlestick,—effected, too,
by champions of the same heretical creed which Basil and Gregory successfully
resisted. It will be found in the history of the last days of the great
Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa. The truth triumphed in the East by the
power of preaching; it was extirpated in the South by the edge of the sword.
Though it may not be given us to appropriate the
prophecies of the Apocalypse to the real events to which they belong, yet it is
impossible to read its inspired pages, and then to turn to the dissolution of
the Roman empire, without seeing a remarkable agreement, on the whole, between
the calamities of that period and the sacred prediction. There is a plain
announcement in the inspired page, of "Woe, woe, woe, to the inhabitants
of the earth;" an announcement of "hail and fire mingled with
blood," the conflagration of "trees and green grass," the
destruction of ships, the darkening of the sun, and the poisoning of the rivers
over a third of their course. There is a clear prophecy of revolutions on the
face of the earth and in the structure of society. And, on the other hand, let
us observe how fully such general foretokenings are borne out, among other
passages of history, in the Vandalic conquest of Africa.
The coast of Africa, between the great desert and the
Mediterranean, was one of the most fruitful and opulent portions of the Roman
world. The eastern extremity of it was more especially connected with the
empire, containing in it Carthage, Hippo, and other towns, celebrated as being
sees of the Christian Church, as well as places of civil importance. In the
spring of the year 428, the Vandals, Arians by creed, and barbarians by birth
and disposition, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, and proceeded along this
fertile district, bringing with them devastation and captivity on every side.
They abandoned themselves to the most savage cruelties and excesses. They
pillaged, ravaged, burned, massacred all that came in their way, sparing not
even the fruit-trees, which might have afforded some poor food to the remnant
of the population, who had escaped from them into caves, the recesses of the
mountains, or into vaults. Twice did this desolating pestilence sweep over the
face of the country.
The fury of the Vandals was especially exercised
towards the memorials of religion. Churches, cemeteries, monasteries, were
objects of their fiercest hatred and most violent assaults. They broke into the
places of worship, cut to pieces all internal decorations, and then set fire to
them. They tortured bishops and clergy with the hope of obtaining treasure. The
names of some of the victims of their ferocity are preserved. Mansuetus, bishop
of Utica, was burnt alive; Papinianus, bishop of Vite, was laid upon red-hot
plates of iron. This was near upon the time when the third General Council was
assembling at Ephesus, which, from the insecure state of the roads, and the
universal misery which reigned among them, the African bishops were prevented
from attending. The Clergy, the religious brotherhoods, the holy virgins, were
scattered all over the country. The daily sacrifice was stopped, the sacraments
could not be obtained, the festivals of the Church passed unnoticed. At length,
only three cities remained unvisited by the general desolation,—Carthage,
Hippo, and Cirtha.
2.
Hippo was the see of St. Austin, then seventy-four
years of age (forty almost of which had been passed in ministerial labours),
and warned, by the law of nature, of the approach of dissolution. It was as if
the light of prosperity and peace were fading away from the African Church, as
sank the bodily powers of its great earthly ornament and stay. At this time,
when the terrors of the barbaric invasion spread on all sides, a bishop wrote
to him to ask whether it was allowable for the ruler of a Church to leave the
scene of his pastoral duties in order to save his life. Different opinions had
heretofore been expressed on this question. In Augustine's own country
Tertullian had maintained that flight was unlawful, but he was a Montanist when
he so wrote. On the other hand, Cyprian had actually fled, and had defended his
conduct when questioned by the clergy of Rome. His contemporaries, Dionysius of
Alexandria, {130} and Gregory of Neocæsarea, had fled also; as had Polycarp
before them, and Athanasius after them.
Athanasius also had to defend his flight, and he
defended it, in a work still extant, thus:—First, he observes, it has the
sanction of numerous Scripture precedents. Thus, in the instance of confessors
under the old covenant, Jacob fled from Esau, Moses from Pharao, David from
Saul; Elias concealed himself from Achab three years, and the sons of the
prophets were hid by Abdias in a cave from Jezebel. In like manner under the
Gospel, the disciples hid themselves for fear of the Jews, and St. Paul was let
down in a basket over the wall at Damascus. On the other hand, no instance can
be adduced of over-boldness and headstrong daring in the saints of Scripture.
But our Lord Himself is the chief exemplar of fleeing from persecution. As a
child in arms He had to flee into Egypt. When He returned, He still shunned
Judea, and retired to Nazareth. After raising Lazarus, on the Jews seeking His
life, "He walked no more openly among them," but retreated to the
neighbourhood of the desert. When they took up stones to cast at Him, He hid
Himself; when they attempted to cast Him down headlong, He made His way through
them; when He heard of the Baptist's death, He retired across the lake into a
desert place, apart. If it be said that He did so, because His time was not yet
come, and that when it was come, He delivered up Himself, we must ask, in
reply, how a man can know that his time is come, so as to have a right to act
as Christ acted? And since we do not know, we must have patience; and, till God
by His own act determines the time, we must "wander in sheepskins and
goat-skins," rather than take the matter into our own hands; as even Saul,
the persecutor, was left by David in the hands of God, whether He would
"strike him, or his day should come to die, or he should go down to battle
and perish."
If God's servants, proceeds Athanasius, have at any
time presented themselves before their persecutors, it was at God's command:
thus Elias showed himself to Achab; so did the prophet from Juda, to Jeroboam;
and St. Paul appealed to Cæsar. Flight, so far from implying cowardice,
requires often greater courage than not to flee. It is a greater trial of
heart. Death is an end of all trouble; he who flees is ever expecting death,
and dies daily. Job's life was not to be touched by Satan, yet was not his
fortitude shown in what he suffered? Exile is full of miseries. The after-conduct
of the saints showed they had not fled for fear. Jacob, on his deathbed,
contemned death, and blessed each of the twelve Patriarchs; Moses returned, and
presented himself before Pharao; David was a valiant warrior; Elias rebuked
Achab and Ochazias; Peter and Paul, who had once hid themselves, offered
themselves to martyrdom at Rome. And so acceptable was the previous flight of
these men to Almighty God, that we read of His showing them some special favour
during it. Then it was that Jacob had the vision of Angels; Moses saw the
burning bush; David wrote his prophetic Psalms; Elias raised the dead, and
gathered the people on Mount Carmel. How would the Gospel ever have been
preached throughout the world, if the Apostles had not fled? And, since their
time, those, too, who have become martyrs, at first fled; or, if they advanced
to meet their persecutors, it was by some secret suggestion of the Divine
Spirit. But, above all, while these instances abundantly illustrate the rule of
duty in persecution, and the temper of mind necessary in those who observe it,
we have that duty itself declared in a plain precept by no other than our Lord:
"When they shall persecute you in this city," He says, "flee
into another;" and "let them that are in Judea flee unto the
mountains."
Thus argues the great Athanasius, living in spirit
with the saints departed, while full of labour and care here on earth. For the
arguments on the other side, let us turn to a writer, not less vigorous in
mind, but less subdued in temper. Thus writes Tertullian on the same subject,
then a Montanist, a century and a half earlier:—Nothing happens, he says,
without God's will. Persecution is sent by Him, to put His servants to the
test; to divide between good and bad: it is a trial; what man has any right to
interfere? He who gives the prize, alone can assign the combat. Persecution is
more than permitted, it is actually appointed by Almighty God. It does the
Church much good, as leading Christians to increased seriousness while it
lasts. It comes and goes at God's ordering. Satan could not touch Job, except
so far as God gave permission. He could not touch the Apostles, except as far
as an opening was allowed in the words, "Satan hath desired to have you,
but I have prayed for thee," Peter, "and thou, being once converted,
confirm thy brethren." We pray, "Lead us not into temptation, but
deliver us from evil;" why, if we may deliver ourselves? Satan is
permitted access to us, either for punishment, as in Saul's case, or for our
chastisement. Since the persecution comes from God, we may not lawfully avoid
it, nor can we avoid it. We cannot, because He is all powerful; we must not,
because He is all good. We should leave the matter entirely to God. As to the
command of fleeing from city to city, this was temporary. It was intended to
secure the preaching of the Gospel to the nations. While the Apostles preached
to the Jews,—till they had preached to the Gentiles,—they were to flee; but one
might as well argue, that we now are not to go "into the way of the
Gentiles," but to confine ourselves to "the lost sheep of the house
of Israel," as that we are now to "flee from city to city." Nor,
indeed, was going from city to city a flight; it was a continued preaching; not
an accident, but a rule: whether persecuted or not, they were to go about; and
before they had gone through the cities of Israel, the Lord was to come. The
command contemplated only those very cities. If St. Paul escaped out of
Damascus by night, yet afterwards, against the prayers of the disciples and the
prophecy of Agabus, he went up to Jerusalem. Thus the command to flee did not
last even through the lifetime of the Apostles; and, indeed, why should God
introduce persecution, if He bids us retire from it? This is imputing
inconsistency to His acts. If we want texts to justify our not fleeing, He
says, "Whoso shall confess Me before men, I will confess him before My
Father." "Blessed are they that suffer persecution;" "He
that shall persevere to the end, he shall be saved;" "Be not afraid
of them that kill the body;" "Whosoever does not carry his cross and
come after Me, cannot be My disciple." How are these texts fulfilled when
a man flees? Christ, who is our pattern, did not more than pray, "If it be
possible, let this chalice pass:" we, too, should both stay and pray as He
did. And it is expressly told us, that "We also ought to lay down our
lives for the brethren." Again, it is said, "Perfect charity casteth
out fear;" he who flees, fears; he who fears, "is not perfected in
charity." The Greek proverb is sometimes urged, "He who flees, will
fight another day;" yes, and he may flee another day, also. Again, if
bishops, priests, and deacons flee, why must the laity stay? or must they flee
also? "The good shepherd," on the contrary, "layeth down his
life for his sheep;" whereas, the bad shepherd "seeth the wolf
coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth." At no time, as Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and Zechariah tell us, is the flock in greater danger of being
scattered than when it loses its shepherd. Tertullian ends thus:—"This
doctrine, my brother, perhaps appears to you hard; nay, intolerable. But
recollect that God has said, 'He that can take, let him take it;' that is, he
who receives it not, let him depart. He who fears to suffer cannot belong to
Him who has suffered. He who does not fear to suffer is perfect in love, that
is, of God. Many are called, few are chosen. Not he who would walk the broad
way is sought out by God, but he who walks the narrow." Thus
the ingenious and vehement Tertullian.
